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On 6 August 2001, His Highness Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan completed 35 years as Ruler of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, one of the seven emirates that together comprise the Federation of the United Arab Emirates (UAE), of which he has also been President since its creation in December 1971.
Having first served in government in 1946 as Ruler's Representative in Abu Dhabi's Eastern Region based in the inland oasis of Al Ain, Sheikh Zayed has now provided leadership to the country for well over half a century.
Born around 1918 (the date is uncertain), Sheikh Zayed is the youngest of the four sons of Sheikh Sultan bin Zayed, Ruler of Abu Dhabi from 1922 to 1926. He was named after his grandfather, Sheikh Zayed bin Khalifa, who ruled the emirate from 1855 to 1909, the longest reign in the three centuries since the Al Nahyan family emerged as leaders of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi.
Abu Dhabi, like the other emirates of the southern Arabian Gulf known as the Trucial States, was then in treaty relations with Britain. At the time Sheikh Zayed was born the emirate was poor and undeveloped, with an economy based primarily on fishing and pearl diving along the coast and offshore and on simple agriculture in scattered oases inland.
Life, even for a young member of the ruling family, was simple. Education was primarily confined to the provision of instruction in the principles of Islam from the local preacher, while modern facilities such as roads, communications and health care were conspicuous only by their absence. Transport was by camel or by boat, and the harshness of the arid climate meant that survival itself was often a major concern.
In early 1928, following the death of Sheikh Sultan's successor, a family conclave selected as Ruler Sheikh Shakhbut, Sultan's eldest son, a post he was to hold until August 1966 when he stepped down in favour of his brother Zayed.
During the late 1920s and 1930s, as Sheikh Zayed grew to manhood he displayed an early thirst for knowledge that took him out into the desert with the bedu tribesmen to learn all he could about the way of life of the people and the environment in which they lived. He recalls with pleasure his experience of desert life and his initiation into the sport of falconry, which has been a lifelong passion.
In his book, Falconry: Our Arab Heritage, published in 1977, Sheikh Zayed noted that the companionship of a hunting party:
...permits each and every member of the expedition to speak freely and express his ideas and viewpoints without inhibition and restraint, and allows the one responsible to acquaint himself with the wishes of his people, to know their problems and perceive their views accurately, and thus to be in a position to help and improve their situation.
From his desert journeys, Sheikh Zayed learned to understand the relationship between man and his environment and in particular, the need to ensure that sustainable use was made of natural resources. Once an avid shot, he abandoned the gun for falconry at the age of 25, aware that hunting with a gun could lead rapidly to extinction of the native wildlife.
His travels in the remoter areas of Abu Dhabi provided Sheikh Zayed with a deep understanding both of the country and of its people. In the early 1930s, when the first oil company teams arrived to carry out preliminary surface geological surveys, he was assigned by his brother the task of guiding them around the desert. At the same time he obtained his first exposure to the industry that was later to have such a great effect upon the country.
In 1946, Sheikh Zayed was chosen to fill a vacancy as the Ruler's Representative in the Eastern Region of Abu Dhabi, centred on the oasis of Al Ain, approximately 160 kilometres east of the island of Abu Dhabi itself. Inhabited continuously for at least 5,000 years, the oasis had nine villages, six of which belonged to Abu Dhabi, and three, including Buraimi, by which name the oasis was also known, belonged to the Sultanate of Oman. The job included the task of not only administering the six villages, but the whole of the adjacent desert region, providing Sheikh Zayed with an opportunity to learn the techniques of government. In the late 1940s and early 1950s when Saudi Arabia put forward territorial claims to Buraimi he also gained experience of politics on a broader scale.
Sheikh Zayed brought to his new task a firm belief in the values of consultation and consensus, in contrast to confrontation. Foreign visitors, such as the British explorer Sir Wilfred Thesiger, who first met him at this time, noted with approbation that his judgements 'were distinguished by their astute insights, wisdom and fairness'.
Sheikh Zayed swiftly established himself not only as someone who had a clear vision of what he wished to achieve for the people of Al Ain, but also as someone who led by example.
A key task in the early years in Al Ain was that of stimulating the local economy, which was largely based on agriculture. To do this, he ensured that the subterranean water channels, or falajes (aflaj), were dredged and personally financed the construction of a new one, taking part in the strenuous labour that was involved.
He also ordered a revision of local water ownership rights to ensure a more equitable distribution, surrendering the rights of his own family as an example to others. The consequent expansion of the area under cultivation in turn generated more income for the residents of Al Ain, helping to re-establish the oasis as a predominant economic centre throughout a wide area.
With development gradually beginning to get under way, Sheikh Zayed commenced the laying out of a visionary city plan, and, in a foretaste of the massive afforestation programme of today, he also ordered the planting of ornamental trees that now, grown to maturity, have made Al Ain one of the greenest cities in Arabia.
In 1953 Sheikh Zayed made his first visit abroad, accompanying his brother Shakhbut to Britain and France. He recalled later how impressed he had been by the schools and hospitals he visited, becoming determined that his own people should have the benefit of similar facilities:
There were a lot of dreams I was dreaming about our land catching up with the modern world, but I was not able to do anything because I did not have the wherewithal in my hands to achieve these dreams. I was sure, however, that one day they would become true.
Despite constraints through lack of government revenues, Sheikh Zayed succeeded in bringing progress to Al Ain, establishing the rudiments of an administrative machinery, personally funding the first modern school in the emirate and coaxing relatives and friends to contribute towards small-scale development programmes.
However, the export of Abu Dhabi first cargo of crude oil to the world market in 1962 was to provide Sheikh Zayed with the means to fund his dreams. Although prices for crude oil were then far lower than they are today, the rapidly growing volume of exports revolutionised the economy of Abu Dhabi and its people began to look forward eagerly to some of the benefits that were already being enjoyed by their near-neighbours in Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. The pearling industry had finally come to an end shortly after the Second World War, and little had emerged to take its place. Indeed, during the late 1950s and early 1960s, many of the people of Abu Dhabi left for other oil-producing Gulf states where there were opportunities for employment.
The economic hardships faced by Abu Dhabi since the 1930s had accustomed the Ruler, Sheikh Shakhbut, to a cautious frugality. Despite the growing aspirations of his people for progress, he was reluctant to invest the new oil revenues in development. Attempts by members of his family, including Sheikh Zayed, and by the leaders of the other tribes in the emirate to persuade him to move with the times were unsuccessful, and eventually the Al Nahyan family decided that the time had come for him to step down. The record of Sheikh Zayed over the previous 20 years in Al Ain and his popularity among the people made him the obvious choice as successor.
On 6 August 1966 Sheikh Zayed became Ruler, with a mandate from his family to press ahead as fast as possible with the development of Abu Dhabi.
He was a man in a hurry. His years in Al Ain had not only given him experience in government, but had also provided him with the time to develop a vision of how the emirate could progress. With revenues growing year by year as oil production increased, he was determined to use them in the service of the people and a massive programme of construction of schools, housing, hospitals and roads got rapidly under way.
Of his first few weeks as Ruler, Sheikh Zayed has said:
All the picture was prepared. It was not a matter of fresh thinking, but of simply putting into effect the thoughts of years and years. First I knew we had to concentrate on Abu Dhabi and public welfare. In short, we had to obey the circumstances: the needs of the people as a whole. Second, I wanted to approach other emirates to work with us. In harmony, in some sort of federation, we could follow the example of other developing countries.
As Abu Dhabi embarked on development, Sheikh Zayed also turned his attention rapidly to the building of closer relations with the other emirates: 'Federation is the way to power, the way to strength, the way to well-being,' he felt. 'Lesser entities have no standing in the world today, and so has it ever been in history.'
One early step was to increase contributions to the Trucial States Development Fund established a few years earlier by the British; Abu Dhabi soon became its largest donor. At the beginning of 1968, when the British announced their intention of withdrawing from the Arabian Gulf by the end of 1971, Sheikh Zayed acted swiftly to initiate moves towards a closer relationship with the other emirates.
Together with the late Ruler of Dubai, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, who was to become Vice-President and Prime Minister of the UAE, Sheikh Zayed took the lead in calling for a federation that would include not only the seven emirates that together made up the Trucial States, but also Qatar and Bahrain. When early hopes of a federation of nine states eventually foundered, with Qatar and Bahrain opting to preserve their separate status, Sheikh Zayed led his fellow Rulers in agreement on the establishment of the UAE, which formally emerged on to the international stage on 2 December 1971.
While his enthusiasm for federation - clearly displayed by his willingness to spend the oil revenues of Abu Dhabi on the development of the other emirates - was a key factor in the formation of the UAE, Sheikh Zayed also won support for the way in which he sought consensus and agreement among his brother Rulers:
I am not imposing unity on anyone. That is tyranny. All of us have our opinions, and these opinions can change. Sometimes we put all opinions together, and then extract from them a single point of view. This is our democracy.
Sheikh Zayed was elected by his fellow Rulers as the first President of the UAE, a post to which he has been successively re-elected at five-yearly intervals.
The new state came into being at a time of political turmoil in the region. A couple of days earlier, on the night of 30 November and early morning of 1 December, Iran had forcibly and unlawfully seized the islands of Abu Musa, part of Sharjah, and Greater and Lesser Tunb (see section on International Relations).
On land, demarcation of the borders between the individual emirates and its neighbours had not been completed, although a preliminary agreement had already been reached between Abu Dhabi and Oman.
Foreign observers, lacking an understanding of the importance of a common history and heritage in bringing together the people of the UAE, predicted that the new state would survive only with difficulty, pointing to disputes with its neighbours and to the wide disparity in the size, population and level of development of the seven emirates.
Better informed about the nature of the country, Sheikh Zayed was naturally more optimistic. Looking back a quarter of a century later, he noted:
Our experiment in federation, in the first instance, arose from a desire to increase the ties that bind us, as well as from the conviction of all that they were part of one family, and that they must gather together under one leadership.
We had never (previously) had an experiment in federation, but our proximity to each other and the ties of blood relationships between us are factors which led us to believe that we must establish a federation that should compensate for the disunity and fragmentation that earlier prevailed.
That which has been accomplished has exceeded all our expectations, and that, with the help of God and a sincere will, confirms that there is nothing that cannot be achieved in the service of the people if determination is firm and intentions are sincere.
The predictions of the pessimists at the time of the formation of the UAE have indeed been clearly proven to be unfounded. Over the course of the past 28 years, the UAE has not only survived, but has developed at a rate that is almost without parallel. The country has been utterly transformed. Its population has risen from around 250,000 to a 1999 estimate of 2.94 million. Progress, in terms of the provision of social services, health and education, as well as in sectors such as communications and the oil and non-oil economy, has brought a high standard of living that has spread throughout the seven emirates, from the ultra-modern cities to the remotest areas of the desert and mountains. The change has, moreover, taken place against a backdrop of enviable political and social stability, despite the insecurity and conflict that has dogged much of the rest of the Gulf region.
At the same time, the country has also established itself firmly on the international scene, both within the Gulf and Arab region and in the broader community of nations. Its pursuit of dialogue and consensus and its firm adherence to the tenets of the Charter of the United Nations, in particular those dealing with the principle of non-interference in the affairs of other states, have been coupled with a quiet but extensive involvement in the provision of development assistance and humanitarian aid that, in per capita terms, has few parallels.
There is no doubt that the experiment in federation has been a success and the undoubted key to the achievements of the UAE has been the central role played by Sheikh Zayed.
During his years in Al Ain, he was able to develop a vision of how the country should progress, and, since becoming first Ruler of Abu Dhabi, and then President of the UAE, he has devoted more than three decades into making that vision a reality.
One foundation of his philosophy as a leader and statesman is that the resources of the country should be fully utilised to the benefit of the people. The UAE is fortunate to have been blessed with massive reserves of oil and gas and it is through careful utilisation of these, including the decision in 1973 that the Government should take a controlling share of the oil reserves and assume total ownership of associated and non-associated gas, that the financial resources necessary to underpin the development programme have always been available. Indeed, there has been sufficient to permit the Government to set aside large amounts for investment on behalf of future generations and, through the Abu Dhabi Investment Authority created by Sheikh Zayed, the country now has reserves unofficially estimated at around US billion.
The financial resources, however, have always been regarded by Sheikh Zayed not as a means unto themselves, but as a tool to facilitate the development of what he believes to be the real wealth of the country - its people, and in particular the younger generation:
Wealth is not money. Wealth lies in men. That is where true power lies, the power that we value. They are the shield behind which we seek protection. This is what has convinced us to direct all our resources to building the individual, and to using the wealth with which God has provided us in the service of the nation, so that it may grow and prosper.
Unless wealth is used in conjunction with knowledge to plan for its use, and unless there are enlightened intellects to direct it, its fate is to diminish and to disappear. The greatest use that can be made of wealth is to invest it in creating generations of educated and trained people.
Addressing the graduation ceremony of the first class of students from the Emirates University in 1982, Sheikh Zayed said:
The building of mankind is difficult and hard. It represents, however, the real wealth [of the country]. This is not found in material wealth. It is made up of men, of children and of future generations. It is this which constitutes the real treasure. Within this framework, Sheikh Zayed believes that all of the country's citizens have a role to play in its development. Indeed he defines it not simply as a right, but a duty. Addressing his colleagues in the Federal Supreme Council, he noted:
The most important of our duties as Rulers is to raise the standard of living of our people. To carry out one's duty is a responsibility given by God, and to follow up on work is the responsibility of everyone, both the old and the young.
Both men and women, he believes, should play their part. Recognising that in the past a lack of education and development had prevented women taking a full role in much of the activity of society, he has taken action to ensure that this situation does not continue.
Although women's advocates might argue that there is still much to be done, the achievements have been remarkable and the country's women are now increasingly playing their part in political and economic life by taking up senior positions in the public and private sectors. In so doing, they have enjoyed full support from the President:
Women have the right to work everywhere. Islam affords to women their rightful status, and encourages them to work in all sectors, as long as they are afforded the appropriate respect. The basic role of women is the upbringing of children, but, over and above that, we must offer opportunities to a woman who chooses to perform other functions. What women have achieved in the Emirates in only a short space of time makes me both happy and content. We sowed our seeds yesterday, and today the fruit has already begun to appear. We praise God for the role that women play in our society. It is clear that this role is beneficial for both present and future generations.
Sheikh Zayed has made it clear that he believes that the younger generation, those who have enjoyed the fruits of the UAE's development programme, must now take up the burden once carried by their parents. Within his immediate family, Sheikh Zayed has ensured that his sons have taken up posts in government at which they are expected to work and not simply enjoy as sinecures. Young UAE men who have complained about the perceived lack of employment opportunities at an unrealistic salary level have been offered positions on farms as agricultural labourers, so that they may learn the dignity of work:
Work is of great importance, and of great value in building both individuals and societies.The size of a salary is not a measure of the worth of an individual. What is important is an individual's sense of dignity and self-respect. It is my duty as the leader of the young people of this country to encourage them to work and to exert themselves in order to raise their own standards and to be of service to the country. The individual who is healthy and of a sound mind and body but who does not work commits a crime against himself and against society.
We look forward to seeing in the future our sons and daughters playing a more active role, broadening their participation in the process of development and shouldering their share of the responsibilities, especially in the private sector, so as to lay the foundations for the success of this participation and effectiveness. At the same time, we are greatly concerned to raise the standing and dignity of the work ethic in our society, and to increase the percentage of citizens in the labour force. This can be achieved by following a realistic and well-planned approach that will improve performance and productivity, moving towards the long-term goal of secure and comprehensive development.
In this sphere, as in other areas, Sheikh Zayed has long been concerned about the possible adverse impact upon the younger generation of the easy life they enjoy, so far removed from the resilient, resourceful lifestyle of their parents. One key feature of Sheikh Zayed's strategy of government, therefore, has been the encouragement of initiatives designed to conserve and cherish aspects of the traditional culture of the people, in order to familiarise the younger generation with the ways of their ancestors. In his view, it is of crucial importance that the lessons and heritage of the past are not forgotten. They provide, he believes, an essential foundation upon which real progress can be achieved:
History is a continuous chain of events. The present is only an extension of the past. He who does not know his past cannot make the best of his present and future, for it is from the past that we learn. We gain experience and we take advantage of the lessons and results [of the past]. Then we adopt the best and that which suits our present needs, while avoiding the mistakes made by our fathers and our grandfathers.The new generation should have a proper appreciation of the role played by their forefathers. They should adopt their model, and the supreme ideal of patience, fortitude, hard work and dedication to doing their duty.
Once believed to have been little more than an insignificant backwater in the history of mankind in the Middle East, the UAE has emerged in recent years as a country which has played a crucial role in the development of civilisation in the region for thousands of years.
The first archaeological excavations in the UAE took place 40 years ago, in 1959, with the archaeologists benefiting extensively from the interest shown in their work by Sheikh Zayed. Indeed he himself invited them to visit the Al Ain area to examine remains in and around the oasis that proved to be some of the most important ever found in southeastern Arabia. In the decades that have followed, Sheikh Zayed has continued to support archaeological studies throughout the country, eager to ensure that knowledge of the achievements of the past becomes available to educate and inspire the people of today.
Appropriately, one of the most important archaeological sites has been discovered on Abu Dhabi's western island of Sir Bani Yas, which for more than 20 years has been a private wildlife reserve created by Sheikh Zayed to ensure the survival of some of Arabia's most endangered species.
If the heritage of the people of the UAE is important to Sheikh Zayed, so too is the conservation of its natural environment and wildlife. After all, he believes the strength of character of the Emirati people derives, in part, from the struggle that they were obliged to wage in order to survive in the harsh and arid local environment.
His belief in conservation of the environment owes nothing to modern fashion. Acknowledged by the presentation of the prestigious Gold Panda Award from the Worldwide Fund for Nature, it derives, instead, from his own upbringing, living in harmony with nature. This has led him to ensure that conservation of wildlife and the environment is a key part of government policy, while at the same time he has stimulated and personally supervised a massive programme of afforestation that has now seen over 150 million trees planted.
In a speech on the occasion of the UAE's first Environment Day in February 1998 Sheikh Zayed spelt out his beliefs:
We cherish our environment because it is an integral part of our country, our history and our heritage. On land and in the sea, our forefathers lived and survived in this environment. They were able to do so only because they recognised the need to conserve it, to take from it only what they needed to live, and to preserve it for succeeding generations. With God's will, we shall continue to work to protect our environment and our wildlife, as did our forefathers before us. It is a duty: and, if we fail, our children, rightly, will reproach us for squandering an essential part of their inheritance, and of our heritage.
Like most conservationists Sheikh Zayed is concerned wherever possible to remedy the damage done by man to wildlife. His programme on the island of Sir Bani Yas for the captive breeding of endangered native animals such as the Arabian oryx and the Arabian gazelle has achieved impressive success, so much so that not only is the survival of both species now assured, but animals are also carefully being reintroduced to the wild.
As in other areas of national life, Sheikh Zayed has made it clear that conservation is not simply the task of government. Despite the existence of official institutions like the Federal Environmental Agency and Abu Dhabi's Environmental Research and Wildlife Development Agency, (empowered by a growing catalogue of legislation), the UAE's President has stressed that there is also a role both for the individual and for non-governmental organisations, both of citizens and expatriates.
He believes that society can only flourish and develop if all of its members acknowledge their responsibilities. This does not only to concerns such as environmental conservation, but also to other areas of national life.
Members of the Al Nahyan family, of which Sheikh Zayed is the current head, have been Rulers of Abu Dhabi since at least the beginning of the eighteenth century, longer than any other ruling dynasty in the Arabian peninsula. In Arabian bedu society, however, the legitimacy of a Ruler, and of a ruling family, derives essentially from consensus and from consent. Just as Sheikh Zayed himself was chosen by members of his family to become Ruler of Abu Dhabi in 1966, when his elder brother was no longer able to retain their confidence, so does the legitimacy of the political system today derive from the support it draws from the people of the UAE. The principle of consultation (shura) is an essential part of that system.
At an informal level, that principle has long been put into practice through the institution of the majlis (council) where a leading member of society holds an 'open-house' discussion forum, at which any individual may put forward views for discussion and consideration. While the majlis system - the UAE's form of direct democracy - still continues, it is naturally, best suited to a relatively small community.
In 1970, recognising that Abu Dhabi was embarking upon a process of rapid change and development, Sheikh Zayed created the Emirate's National Consultative Council, bringing together the leaders of each of the main tribes and families which comprised the population. A similar body was created for the UAE as a whole, the Federal National Council, the state's parliament,
Both institutions represent the formalisation of the traditional process of consultation and discussion and their members are frequently urged by Sheikh Zayed to express their views openly, without fear or favour.
At present, members of both the National Consultative Council and the Federal National Council continue to be selected by Sheikh Zayed and the other Rulers, in consultation with leading members of the community in each emirate. However, in the future, Sheikh Zayed has said, a formula for direct elections will be devised. He notes, however, that in this, as in many other fields, it is necessary to move ahead with care to ensure that only such institutions as are appropriate for Emirati society are adopted.
Questioned by the New York Times on the topic of the possible introduction of an elected parliamentary democracy, Sheikh Zayed replied:
Why should we abandon a system that satisfies our people in order to introduce a system that seems to engender dissent and confrontation? Our system of government is based upon our religion, and is what our people want. Should they seek alternatives, we are ready to listen to them. We have always said that our people should voice their demands openly. We are all in the same boat, and they are both captain and crew.
Our doors here are open for any opinion to be expressed, and this is well known by all our citizens. It is our deep conviction that God the Creator has created people free, and has prescribed that each individual must enjoy freedom of choice. No-one should act as if he owns others. Those in a position of leadership should deal with their subjects with compassion and understanding, because this is the duty enjoined upon them by God Almighty, who enjoins us to treat all living creatures with dignity. How can there be anything less for man, created as God's vice-gerent on earth? Our system of government does not derive its authority from man, but is enshrined in our religion, and is based on God's book, the Holy Quran. What need have we of what others have conjured up? Its teachings are eternal and complete, while the systems conjured up by man are transitory and incomplete.
Sheikh Zayed imbibed the principles of Islam in his childhood and it remains the foundation of his beliefs and philosophy today. Indeed, the ability with which he and the people of the UAE have been able to absorb and adjust to the remarkable changes of the past few decades can be ascribed largely to the fact that Islam has provided an unchanging and immutable core of their lives. Today, it provides the inspiration for the UAE judicial system and its place as the ultimate source of legislation is enshrined in the country's constitution.
Islam, like other divinely revealed religions, has those among its claimed adherents who purport to interpret its message as justifying harsh dogmas and intolerance. In Sheikh Zayed's view, however, such an approach is not merely a perversion of the message but is directly contrary to it. Extremism, he believes, has no place in Islam. In contrast, he stresses that:
Islam is a civilising religion that gives mankind dignity. A Muslim is he who does not inflict evil upon others. Islam is the religion of tolerance and forgiveness, and not of war, of dialogue and understanding. It is Islamic social justice which has asked every Muslim to respect the other. To treat every person, no matter what his creed or race, as a special soul is a mark of Islam. It is just that point, embodied in the humanitarian tenets of Islam, that makes us so proud of it.
Within that context, Sheikh Zayed has set his face firmly against those who preach intolerance and hatred:
In these times we see around us violent men who claim to talk on behalf of Islam. Islam is far removed from their talk. If such people really wish for recognition from Muslims and the world, they should themselves first heed the words of God and His Prophet. Regrettably, however, these people have nothing whatsoever that connects them to Islam. They are apostates and criminals. We see them slaughtering children and the innocent. They kill people, spill their blood and destroy their property, and then claim to be Muslims.
Sheikh Zayed is an eager advocate of tolerance, discussion and a better understanding between those of different faiths, recognising that this is essential if mankind is to ever move forward in harmony. His faith is well summed up by a statement explaining the essential basis of his own beliefs: 'My religion is based neither on hope, nor on fear, I worship my God because I love him.'
That faith, with its belief in the brotherhood of man and in the duty incumbent upon the strong to provide assistance to those less fortunate than themselves, is fundamental to Sheikh Zayed's vision of how his country and people should develop. It is, too, a key to the foreign policy of the UAE, which he has devised and guided since the establishment of the state.
The UAE itself has been able to progress only because of the way in which its component parts have successfully been able to come together in a relationship of harmony, working together for common goals.
Within the Arabian Gulf region, and in the broader Arab world, the UAE has sought to enhance cooperation and to resolve disagreement through a calm pursuit of dialogue and consensus. Thus one of the central features of the country's foreign policy has been the development of closer ties with its neighbours in the Arabian peninsula. The Arab Gulf Cooperation Council, (AGCC) grouping the UAE, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar and Oman, was founded at a summit conference held in Abu Dhabi in 1981, and has since become, with strong UAE support, an effective and widely-respected grouping.
Intended to facilitate the development of closer ties between its members and to enable them to work together to ensure their security, the AGCC has faced two major external challenges during its short lifetime: first, the long and costly conflict in the 1980s between Iraq and Iran, which itself prompted the Council's formation and second, the August 1990 invasion by Iraq of one of its members, Kuwait.
Following the invasion of Kuwait, President Zayed was one of the first Arab leaders to offer support to its people and units from the UAE armed forces played a significant role in the alliance that liberated the Gulf state in early 1991.
While fully supporting the international condemnation of the policies of the Iraqi regime and the sanctions imposed on Iraq by the United Nations (UN) during and after the conflict, the UAE has, however, expressed its serious concern about the impact that the sanctions have had upon the country's people. In his interview with the New York Times in mid-1998, Sheikh Zayed noted:
Moderate states in the Arab world recognise that Saddam [Hussein] did injustice, and received the appropriate response. He paid the price, and sanctions have now been imposed on Iraq for seven years.
Now, Iraq is sick, tired, hungry and naked. How can you continue to impose sanctions on it for ever in a situation like this? It [Iraq] should not continue to receive punishment, and should no longer have sanctions imposed upon it. We believe that the time has come to say that enough is enough.
Continuing to argue forcefully for a lifting of sanctions, the UAE has, at the same, time, provided an extensive amount of humanitarian assistance to the Iraqi people, ensuring, as far as possible, that the aid reaches those for whom it is intended.
Another key focus of the UAE's foreign policy in an Arab context has been the provision of support to the Palestinian people in their efforts to regain their legitimate rights to self-determination and to the establishment of their own state. As early as 1968, before the formation of the UAE, Sheikh Zayed extended generous assistance to Palestinian organisations, and has done so throughout the last three decades, although he has always believed that it is for the Palestinians themselves to determine their own policies.
Following the establishment of the Palestinian Authority in Gaza and on parts of the occupied West Bank, the UAE has provided substantial help for the building of a national infrastructure, including not only houses, roads, schools and hospitals, but also for the refurbishment of Muslim and Christian sites in the city of Jerusalem. While much of the aid has been bilateral, the UAE has also taken part in development programmes funded by multilateral agencies and groupings and has long been a major contributor to the United Nations Relief Works Agency (UNRWA).
Substantial amounts of aid have also been given to a number of other countries in the Arab world, such as Lebanon, to help it recover from the devastation caused by over a decade of civil war, and to less-developed countries such as Yemen.
Sheikh Zayed has a deeply held belief in the cherished objective of greater political and economic unity within the Arab world. At the same time, however, he has long adopted a realistic approach on the issue, recognising that to be effective any unity must grow slowly and with the support of the people. Arab unity, he believes, is not something that can simply be created through decrees of governments that may be temporary, political phenomena.
That approach has been tried and tested both at the level of the UAE itself, which is the longest-lived experiment in recent times in Arab unity, and at the level of the Arabian Gulf Cooperation Council.
On a broader plane, Sheikh Zayed has sought consistently to promote greater understanding and consensus between Arab countries and to reinvigorate the League of Arab States. Relations between the Arab leaders, he believes, should be based on openness and frankness:
They must make it clear to each other that each one of them needs the other, and they should understand that only through mutual support can they survive in times of need.
A brother should tell his brother: you support me, and I will support you, when you are in the right. But not when you are in the wrong. If I am in the right, you should support and help me, and help to remove the results of any injustice that has been imposed on me.
Wise and mature leaders should listen to sound advice, and should take the necessary action to correct their mistakes. As for those leaders who are unwise or immature, they can be brought to the right path through advice from their sincere friends.
Within that context, and since the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait which split the Arab world asunder, Sheikh Zayed has consistently argued for the holding of a new Arab summit conference at which leaders can honestly and frankly address the disputes between them. Only thus, he believes, can the Arab world as a whole move forward to tackle the challenges that face it, both internally and on the broader international plane:
I believe that an all-inclusive Arab summit must be held, but before attending it, the Arabs must open their hearts to each other and be frank with each other about the rifts between them and their wounds. They should then come to the summit, to make the necessary corrections to their policies, to address the issues, to heal their wounds and to affirm that the destiny of the Arabs is one, both for the weak and the strong. At the same time, they should not concede their rights, or ask for what is not rightfully theirs.
The UAE President acknowledges, however, that unanimity, although desirable, cannot always be achieved. He has, therefore, been the only Arab leader to openly advocate a revision of the Charter of the League of Arab States to permit decisions to be taken on the basis of the will of the majority. Such has been the experience of the society from which he comes, and such has been one of the foundations of the success of the federal experiment in the UAE. It is time, he believes, that a similar approach was adopted within the broader Arab world.
This should not, however, mean that essential rights and principles should be set aside; these include, of course, the principle of the inviolability of the integrity of Arab territories.
This principle has been a matter of major concern to the UAE since its formation, due to the Iranian occupation in 1971 of the UAE islands of Abu Musa and Greater and Lesser Tunb. That occupation was undertaken in contravention of all norms of international law and of the Charter of the United Nations.
Successive governments in Iran have continually consolidated their military hold over the islands and have failed to respond to efforts by the UAE to resolve the issue. The UAE in turn, has never abandoned its attempts to regain its rights over the islands. Iran, however, has rejected the UAE suggestion that the matter be referred to the International Court of Justice and it has also stated that while it is willing to hold bilateral negotiations, these would only deal with what it describes as 'misunderstandings', failing to acknowledge that a question of sovereignty exists.
While Sheikh Zayed wishes to see an improvement in relations with Iran, not only a near-neighbour of the Emirates but also a fellow Muslim state, he has made it clear that a concrete and positive initiative is now required from the Iranian side. 'It is said that [Iranian] President Khatami wants to pursue a policy of openness towards his neighbours and the world, but we are still waiting [for action].'
Here, as on other foreign policy issues, Sheikh Zayed has consistently adopted a firm but calmly worded approach, eschewing rhetoric that could make the search for a solution to problems more difficult.
In recent years, the conflicts ensuing from the disintegration of the former Yugoslavia have been the cause of considerable concern. Prior to the imposition of a peace in Bosnia by the western industrialised powers, Sheikh Zayed's frustration with the continued slaughter of Bosnian Muslims was scarcely concealed.
Commenting to the Emirates News Agency, WAM, at the height of the Serbian campaign of 'ethnic cleansing' against the Muslims, he said that the UN seemed 'enfeebled like a dead machine' in the face of Serbian atrocities:
It is as if the United Nations has been turned into stone, with no feeling or compassion for the agony of the Bosnian people.
We call on all people with a conscience, those who believe in justice and who deplore aggression and unjust wars to stand up against the horrors being perpetrated against the innocent people of Bosnia-Herzegovina.
The world has to move forcefully to put an end to the horrifying tragedy. Governments must move now to enable the people of that besieged country to defend themselves. The right of self-defence is the most basic human and elementary right.
Once the international community had forced the Serbs to cease their campaign of slaughter in Bosnia, Sheikh Zayed promptly moved to ensure that substantial assistance was sent by the UAE to enable the Bosnian Muslims to begin the task of rebuilding their society.
The lessons of the Bosnian tragedy were not, however, lost on Sheikh Zayed. The time had come, he recognised, for the UAE itself to play a more proactive role in international peacekeeping operations.
The UAE armed forces had already begun to establish a record in such peacekeeping activities, first as part of the joint Arab Deterrent Force that sought for a few years to bring to an end the civil strife in Lebanon, and then through participation in UNISOM TWO, the UN peacekeeping and reconstruction force in Somalia.
In early 1999, as a new campaign of Serbian atrocities began to get under way against the Albanian population of Kosovo, Sheikh Zayed was among the first world leaders to express support for the decision by the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) to launch its aerial campaign to force Serbia to halt its genocidal activities.
Recognising early on in the campaign that there would be a need for an international peacekeeping force once the NATO campaign ended, Sheikh Zayed ordered that the UAE armed forces should be a part of any such force operating under the aegis of the UN. In late 1999, with the UN's KFOR force in place in Kosovo, the contingent from the UAE was the largest taking part from any of the non-NATO states.
While ensuring that the UAE should now increasingly come to shoulder such international responsibilities, however, Sheikh Zayed has also made it clear that the UAE's role is one that is focused on relief and rehabilitation.
In the Balkans and in other countries, the policy adopted by the UAE clearly reflects the desire of Sheikh Zayed to utilise the good fortune of his country to provide assistance to those less fortunate. Through bodies like the Zayed Foundation and the Abu Dhabi Fund for Development, established by Sheikh Zayed before the foundation of the UAE, as well as through institutions like the Red Crescent Society, chaired by his son, Sheikh Hamdan bin Zayed Al Nahyan, the country now plays a major role in the provision of relief and development assistance worldwide.
In essence, the philosophy of Sheikh Zayed, derived from his deeply held Muslim faith, is that it is the duty of man to seek to improve the lot of his fellow man. His record in over half a century in government, first within the UAE and then concurrently on a broader international plane, is an indication of the dedication and seriousness with which he has sought to carry out that belief.
H.H. Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan al Nahyan, President of the United Arab Emirates and Ruler of Abu Dhabi
H.H. Sheikh Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Vice President and Prime Minister of the United Arab Emirates and Ruler of Dubai
H.H. Sheikh Sultan bin Mohammed Al Qasimi Ruler of Sharjah
H.H. Sheikh Humaid bin Rashid Al Nuaimi Ruler of Ajman
H.H. Sheikh Rashid bin Ahmed Al Mu'alla Ruler of Umm Al Qaiwain
H.H. Sheikh Saqr bin Mohammed Al Qasimi Ruler of Ras Al Khaimah
H.H. Sheikh Hamad bin Mohammed Al Sharqi Ruler of Fujairah
Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments
United Arab Emirates
President Nuhayyan, ZAYID, bin Sultan Al
Vice President Maktum, MAKTUM, bin Rashid al-
Prime Minister Maktum, MAKTUM, bin Rashid al-
Dep. Prime Min. Nuhayyan, SULTAN, bin Zayid Al
Min. of Agriculture & Fisheries Raqabani, Said Muhammad al-
Min. of Communications Tayir, Ahmad bin Humayd al-
Min. of Defense Maktum, MUHAMMAD, bin Rashid al-
Min. of Economy & Commerce Qasimi, FAHIM, bin Sultan al-
Min. of Education & Youth Sharhan, Ali Abd al-Aziz al-, Dr.
Min. of Electricity & Water Uways, Humayd bin Nasir al-
Min. of Finance & Industry Maktum, HAMDAN, bin Rashid al-
Min. of Foreign Affairs Nuaymi, RASHID, bin Abdallah al-
Min. of Health Madfa, Hamad bin Abd al-Rahman al-
Min. of Higher Education & Scientific Research Nuhayyan, NUHAYYAN, bin Mubarak Al
Min. of Information & Culture Nuhayyan, ABDALLAH, bin Zayid Al
Min. of Interior Badi, Muhammad Said al-, Lt. Gen.
Min. of Justice & Islamic Affairs & Awqaf Dhahiri, Muhammad Nakhira al-
Min. of Labor & Social Affairs Tayir, Matar bin Humayd al-
Min. of Petroleum & Mineral Resources Nasiri, Ubayd Saif al-
Min. of Planning Mualla, Humayd bin Ahmad al-
Min. of Public Works & Housing Raqad, Raqad bin Salim al-
Min. of State for Cabinet Affairs Ghayth, Said Khalfan al-
Min. of State for Financial & Industrial Affairs Kharbash, Muhammad Khalfan bin, Dr.
Min. of State for Foreign Affairs Nuhayyan, HAMDAN, bin Zayid Al
Min. of State for Supreme Council Affairs Nuaymi, MAJID, bin Said al-
Governor, Central Bank Suwaydi, Sultan bin Nasir al-
Ambassador to the US Dhahiri, Asri Said Ahmad al-
Permanent Representative to the UN, New York Shamsi, Abd al-Aziz bin Nasir al
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Overview
The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is a federation consisting of seven sheikhdoms located on the Arabian Gulf. The seven sheikhdoms -- also called emirates -- are Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ras al-Khaimah, Umm al-Qawain, Ajman and Fujairah. There are borders with Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Oman. The borders between the different sheikhdoms are not always precisely defined.
Country name:
United Arab Emirates (al-Imarat al-Arabiyya Al-Muttahida)
Land area
83,600 sq km (32,278 sq mi)
Population
2,407,460
Population growth rate
1.59% (2001 estimation)
Birth rate
18.11 Birth per 1000 population (2001 estimation)
Death rate
3.79 deaths per 1000 population (2001 estimation)
Type of government
federation of emirates
Government leader
Sheikh Zaid bin Sultan al Nahayan, President
Legislature
Federal National Council
Political subdivisions
7 emirates
Official language
Arabic
Major religion
Islam
GDP- real growth rate
4% (2000 estimation)
GDP
Purchasing power parity- billion (2000 estimation)
GDP- per capita
Purchasing power parity 22
Foreign trade
Imports billion
Exports .3 billion
Currency
UAE dirham, divided into 100 fils
($1 = 3.66 dirhams)
Railroads
None
Major ports
3
Major airfields
5
International dialing code
+971
Time zone
GMT + 4 hours
British influence
In the early 19th century, the area that is now the UAE was known as the "Pirate Coast" because of the occupation of its inhabitants.
Beginning in 1820, Great Britain entered into treaties with various leaders in the area out of a desire to protect its ships in the Gulf and the Indian Ocean. In addition, Britain was allowed to handle foreign relations for the area known as "Trucial Oman" or "the Trucial States" because of the Perpetual Maritime Truce that the Arab rulers signed with the British in 1853.
Relations with Britain continued in the same way until the first decades of the 20th century.
Around 1914, the Saudi Arabia re-emerged as a great force in Central Arabia, becoming a threat even for the Ottoman power. Because Russia, France and Germany sought to intensify their presence in the area, the British had to formalize relations with the Trucial States of Bahrain, Oman and Kuwait.
During the inter-war period, England focused its attention onto Egypt and Iraq, but relations among Arab countries changed. The League of Arab States was formed in 1945 by countries who had some form of independence.
The growing influence of the Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser in the Arab world forced Britain to allow greater local participation in the governments of several states of the protectorate. In 1968, Britain decided to withdraw all its military forces from the region. That same year, the OPEAC , which used to be a branch of OPEC , was formed.
Independence
The United Arab Emirates became fully independent on 2 December 1971, although Ras al-Khaimah did not join until 1972.
From that time, it has attracted attention -- first because of its oil reserves and its strategic location but now in addition to those, because of its programme of economic and social development. In the last quarter of the twentieth century, the UAE has witnessed the creation of a truly modern welfare state. Education, health care and social services are available to all citizens
Introduction
United Arab Emirates (UAE) is a federation of seven independent states located in the southeastern corner of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by the Arabian Gulf to the north, Saudi Arabia to the south and west, and the Sultanate of Oman and the Gulf of Oman to the east. Before the discovery of oil in the 1950s, the UAE was a group of emirates under the protection of the British. Oil facilitated a process of rapid growth and modernization to the area, and the emirates became independent as the United Arab Emirates (UAE) in 1971. Its seven member states are Abu Dhabi (picutred), Ajman, Dubai, Al Fujayrah, Ras al Khaymah, Ash-Shariqah, and Umm al Qaywayn. Located in the emirate of the same name, the city of Abu Dhabi is the federal capital and the largest city
Topography
In the south and west of the country, the land is mainly sand dunes and salt flats with the occasional traditional desert oasis. The largest oases are at Al Ain, 160km east of Abu Dhabi, and the Liwa in the southwest.
In the northern part of the country, the sand dunes yield to gravel plains formed by the Hajar Mountain range, dating back about 200 million years. The mountains themselves rise to a height of over 3000 m and run from the UAE south into Oman.
The east coast is essentially a fertile plain where rainfall and subterranean water have allowed agriculture to be practiced for thousands of years. Along the coast, there are long, unspoiled beaches stretching for kilometres. On the Arabian Gulf, over 100 islands and numerous shallow inlets add to the scenery; mangrove trees are common as are spawning fish and birds
Climate
The average annual rainfall is 152mm (6in). The major natural resource is petroleum.
Temperatures from May to September are frequently in the low 40s C with high humidity common in Abu Dhabi and Dubai. In the cities of Fujairah and Khor Fakkan the climate is more pleasant and also in the mountains above Ras al-Khaimah.
During the winter, the entire country generally experiences very good weather though it is often quite windy. Cold weather is not unknown and in the desert around Al-Ain, temperatures sometimes drop as low . Winter in the inland desert is usually pleasantly brisk
Environment
To a casual observer, the environment of the UAE may seem so forbidding that there is little to study and less to conserve. The reverse, however, is the case. Precisely because of its forbidding environment, great care must be taken to preserve it, for on such terrain as this life itself is very delicately balanced.
In the past few years, knowledge of the UAE's environment and of its natural history has grown by leaps and bounds. Both scientists and dedicated amateurs have studied the country's flowers, animals, birds and the very land itself, from desert to mountain valley, from gravel plains to coastal beaches and inlets.
Much of the vegetation of the UAE originated in Africa millions of years ago before the formation of the Red Sea. The various kinds of plants have managed to survive despite the harsh climate -- though of course they have adapted over the years.
Over the centuries, they developed new techniques in order to conserve water and stay alive. In some, the annual life cycle has been condensed into a few weeks. After a slight rain they rush to complete the transformation from seeds to flowering to the casting of seeds for another season before the soil once again grows dry.
Flowers are often small but they bloom in profusion for a short time, adding a welcome splash of colour to the monochromatic desert landscape.
Along the coast of the UAE stands of mangrove provide breeding places for fish and birds. In the Arabian Gulf, the wood was used for the building of both houses and boats.
In the UAE, unlike in many other countries, the mangrove forests are increasing in size due to an extensive programme of planting and cultivation and to the careful monitoring of marine pollution and coastal development. One large stand of mangroves adjacent to the island of Abu Dhabi has been declared a nature reserve and can no longer be visited except for scientific study.
With the help of the Al Ain-based Emirates University, areas of the desert have been fenced to protect vegetation from being grazed by livestock. At the same time, this will increase awareness and understanding of the country's vegetation and of the effect of man and his animals on the environment.
Almost as soon as the oil revenues began to pour into the UAE, the government began a programme of afforestation and planting of gardens and parks. Always an oasis, the city of Al Ain, for example, now has greenery covering over a hundred squarekilometres.
Abu Dhabi itself is so well endowed with parks and gardens that it has earned the name "Garden City of the Gulf". This programme is slowly changing the face of the country and also providing new habitats for plants, animals and birds
Conservation
The government of the United Arab Emirates established the Federal Environmental Agency in 1992. Its role is one of coordination, preparing legislation on environmental topics and encouraging communication on environmental matters between the various municipalities and other groups.
This is taking place at the same time as the government is becoming increasingly involved in conservation.
In the past, the people living in what is now the UAE relied on hunting -- gazelles, oryx, birds -- to supplement their meagre diets. Then as modern vehicles and weapons replaced camels and primitive weapons, the toll on the country's wildlife increased.
The President, Sheikh Zayed, because of his awareness of the need to preserve a balance between man and the environment, banned hunting in Abu Dhabi more than 15 years ago.
Similar legislation has now been introduced in the remaining six emirates. In Fujairah, for example, the ruler has banned the shooting of leopards, lynxes and wildcats in the mountains and strongly discourages his people from hunting the scarce gazelles that remain in the emirate's remoter regions.
The waters of the UAE have also benefited from environmental awareness. The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries has issued a decree forbidding the catching of sea turtles or the taking of their eggs, and fines are levied on local fishermen who break the rules. Also in Fujairah, the government declared the country's first marine parks in June 1995 in order to protect the beautiful and valuable coral reefs.
In Abu Dhabi, the major oil companies whose responsibilities include the off-shore islands, have been given the job of environmental protection and millions of dollars have been spent in surveying and protecting the coast and desert and in making sure that the industry puts the environment high on its list of priorities.
The government realizes that the process of conservation requires both education and legislation. It is not an easy task to persuade a shepherd that he must no longer kill the rare Arabian leopard which is taking his goats and sheep. Or to tell a desert tribesman that he must no longer hunt the beautiful but increasingly scarce sand gazelle which his ancestors have hunted for millennia. However, through a combination of penalties, persuasion and education, the country's animals are slowly becoming safer in their natural habitats.
Because the government realizes that conversation consciousness will take time, there have been movements to establish captive breeding programmes for some of the endangered wildlife. The Arabian oryx (pictured), for example, became extinct in the wild over 20 years ago. Just before it disappeared from the desert, Sheikh Zayed ordered that a few be captured and carefully watched over. Now in the Al Ain Zoo, there are over 200 oryx and it is envisioned that they will ultimately be reintroduced into the wild.
On an island in the western region of the emirate of Abu Dhabi, several thousand gazelles run free. They are given water and food and protected from predators both human and animal. The idea here as well is that the surplus stocks be reintroduced into the desert where they can benefit from the expanding afforestation schemes.
On a smaller scale, the rare Gordon's Wild Cat, which is a relative of the domestic cat, is being bred by an individual in Dubai and also by the Dubai Zoo. Young cats from the Dubai operations have already been sent to zoos in both Europe and America.
The ruler of Sharjah, Sheikh Sultan bin Mohammed al Qassimi, has established the Arabian Leopard Trust. In a large area in the mountains which he donated for that purpose, it is planned to breed the Arabian leopard and the Caracal lynx. In another attempt to protect the country's wildlife, an area along the creek in Dubai where several thousand flamingos spend the winter has been declared a wildlife reserve and the local municipality has created a special area where it is hoped the birds will eventually breed.
As the preservation and conservation of the UAE's environment and wildlife has been given priority, there has also come a recognition that environmental issues have a world-wide rather than merely a national dimension. In 1990 the UAE joined the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES).
Within the Gulf, the country is an active member of the Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment -- ROPME -- as are the other GCC states and also Iran.
The United Arab Emirates has been extremely fortunate in being able spend substantial sums to protect its resources of land and wildlife. The results are now being recorded by scientists from all over the world. And there is a growing realization that although the environment may be a fragile one, it still contains much to delight visitor and resident alike
Women in the UAE: employment
The large number of educated women has had repercussions in the employment market. The most obvious is that more women are demanding and obtaining jobs. The government sector absorbs many of them in education and health but women are spread across the entire civil service and now account for around 40% of the total number of employees.
In some traditional areas women employees are clearly dominant. For example, 100% of nursery school teachers, 55% of primary school teachers and 65% of intermediate and secondary school teachers are women.
Women also play a greater role than men do in the health services, accounting for 54.3% of the total number of employees. One out of every three doctors, pharmacists, technicians and administrators is a woman as is 81% of the nursing staff. And it is also true that the Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences of the Emirates University is attracting more females than males applicants.
In addition to teachers and medical personnel, the university is producing female graduates in the arts, engineering, sciences and communications. The graduates of the Higher Colleges of Technology include specialists in computer technology, office and business administration. Women can also be found in responsible and important jobs in commerce, banking and the oil industry.
The employment of women is helped by the active involvement of women in the media; there are television and radio programmes aimed exclusively at the female audience and magazines devoted to topics of interest to women. The number of professional women in the media doubled between 1980 and 1994. The Higher Colleges of Technology have introduced special communication courses in the women's colleges in an effort to attract more women to this career.
Women are also involved in environmental issues in the UAE. The Emirates University recently introduced a Masters Degree in Environmental Sciences and its first graduates were women. This is not surprising as it is generally women in every society who are more concerned to protect and defend natural life and the environment against the encroachment of the so-called modern age.
It is worth noting that in the UAE policewomen are a part of the governmental system. They perform a variety of jobs ranging from criminal investigation to customs control. Moreover, the women of the UAE can now be found in the armed forces as well. This breakthrough was achieved during the Gulf War when the women of the country, in addition to the men, demanded the right to undergo basic military training in order to equip them to defend their homeland.
With the approval of the President and the enthusiastic support of his wife, Sheikha Fatima bint Mubarak, a special basic training programme for women was established. The results were so encouraging that it was decided to form a special women's corps within the UAE armed forces and so a training college was established. As a result, hundreds of young UAE women are working alongside their brothers in the military, filling all types of posts except those involving front-line combat.
There is no doubt that there has been resistance to female employment among some groups within UAE society. Some men, for example, are opposed to women working at all while others will permit them to work only in jobs in which they do not come into contact with men. These attitudes are, however, slowly being changed as a result of government encouragement and the appearance of women in the employment market.
One thing is sure: the women of the UAE are willing and eager to work. In the summer of 1995, the government encouraged all citizens seeking work to register with the Ministry of the Interior.
Of the 15,594 who registered, 61% -- 9589 -- were women, ranging in age from less than 18 to 60, and of whom 1009 had university degrees in a variety of subjects. The government promised that all who sought work would be offered employment though of course it will take time. Still, the desire of so many UAE women to work will make them valuable assets to any employer.
Women in the UAE: social welfare
In the UAE there are two official bodies which pay specific attention to the interests of Emirati women and children. The first is within the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs and is the Social Affairs section headed by the country's top female civil servant. The other is the UAE Women's Federation, headed by the wife of the President, Sheikha Fatima bint Mubarak.
The Ministry is responsible for paying welfare assistance to those in need, including widows and divorced women as well as the poorer members of society. It also make specific allocations to the women's organizations in the country. The Social Security Law which came into effect in 1977 enumerates the following groups of people as being among those entitled to financial assistance from the state if required:
the totally disabled
widows
unmarried women
orphans
those of limited income
married students
the old
divorced women
women separated from their husbands
families of those serving prison sentences
those married to foreign nationals
The philosophy behind the Social Security Law is the guarantee of help for individuals and families who are facing seemingly insoluble problems while simultaneously trying to help them become productive members of society once again.
Over the past fifteen years, the number of people receiving assistance has fallen but at the same time, the average payment per recipient has gone up sharply, reflecting the increased cost of living.
In 1980 for example, there were a total of 83,076 people receiving assistance with the total sum paid out averaging Dh 3358 (US$ 915) per person. By 1992, the number of people receiving assistance had fallen to 75,867 but the value of the assistance had risen to Dh 6972 (US$ 1900) per person.
Overall more UAE women than men receive assistance (5.74% of the female population as opposed to 2.49% of males). This is not surprising given the lack of educational and employment opportunities for women in the past. It is, however, not a situation which the UAE government is content to leave as it is. The efforts being made by the state are such that Emirati women are provided with all necessary help to enable them to play the fullest possible role in their society.
As a vital part of those efforts, the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs is responsible for the management of a network of Social Development Centres. These were set up with the idea of contributing to the social and economic development of Emirati women, especially in rural areas, so that they will be able to play a more comprehensive role in the life of the country.
These centres offer help both in the home and in the outside world. They are responsible for the first stage in assessing those who are eligible to receive welfare assistance. They also offer advice in a variety of social and domestic situations.
Of direct assistance to women at home are the courses offered in housework with nurseries provided to the children of women who wish to attend the courses. The centres are also involved in the work of adult literacy centres which are run in collaboration with the Ministry of Education.
The Social Development Centres also help women to take a more active role in society. Recreational and social activities are organized while the centres are also very interested in preserving the traditional heritage and handicrafts of UAE women.
Heritage work groups have been established in which women continue the making of traditional handicrafts that are then sold to the public, thus providing additional income for the makers. The centres also offer simple vocational training and regular lectures on topics pertaining to culture, religion and health.
Article 16 of the Constitution states that "all necessary care should be provided to children and to the disabled" and a network of government-supported social welfare and rehabilitation centres have been set up that provide health, social, psychological, educational and vocational rehabilitation and training for the disabled.
The UAE Women's Federation is an active lobbyist for full legal safeguards for the right of the disabled to work. The handicapped are offered the fullest education possible so that they can proceed as far as they are able in the general educational system.
A number of centres for the handicapped exist. The best known is perhaps the Sharjah City for Humanitarian Services which plays a leading role in the rehabilitation of the handicapped not only in the UAE but also throughout the Arab world. A special centre for the elderly and the handicapped has been opened at the medical complex at Mafraq outside Abu Dhabi. It also includes a centre for fitting artificial limbs.
The women of the UAE have traditionally worked in agriculture. Because of this connection, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has developed an innovative programme offering rehabilitation through agricultural training. The programme is now reviving what was in the past a close association between the country's land and its women.
The UAE Women's Federation
Established in 1975 under the leadership of Sheikha Fatima bint Mubarak, the wife of the President, the purpose of the UAE Women's Federation was -- and is -- to bring together under one umbrella all the women's societies in the country. The aim is to create opportunities for women so that they may achieve their fullest potential.
The Federation is made up of six women's groups that are found in all areas of the country. There are now 31 branches of the six groups, many operating in remote areas of the country. The individual societies have their own range of activities. Three of them publish magazines and one runs the only women's chess club, which represents the UAE in Arab and international competition.
Funded by the government, the Federation has its own charter and is empowered to represent the women of the UAE in discussions with Ministries and other government departments and institutions. It also has the responsibility of suggesting new laws or amending existing legislation. The Federation conducts its own research into matters of interest to women and is in touch with government departments to obtain needed statistics and information.
One area of particular concern to the Federation has only come about over the last twenty years. It is the phenomenon of local UAE women remaining unmarried.
Research has revealed a number of problems and the Federation has been quick to suggest possible solutions. At one time, the educational levels of men and women were different and men were often reluctant to marry women of a lower educational level. This has not been the case for several years since present-day men and women have enjoyed all the benefits of modern education and training that the government could supply. Indeed, at present, women outstrip men in education and so in future the problem may appear in reverse.
Because of the rapid economic growth of the country, the expense of large dowries and elaborate wedding celebrations prevented many people from marrying. This led in part to young men's seeking wives from abroad, Arab or non-Arab. And of course Emirati girls remain unmarried. A second problem arose when children were born to couples when the mother was a foreigner and perhaps not well-integrated into the fabric of UAE life and society.
As a partial solution to these problems, in 1994 the President of the UAE set up a special fund called the Marriage Fund. The fund provides financial assistance up to US,000 to young UAE men who wish to marry but lack the means to do so.
Coupled with this, the government also launched a campaign encouraging fathers to request lower dowries for their daughters. Special "wedding halls" have also been built where celebrations can be held without incurring the expenses common to large hotels. The most immediate result has been a fall in the number of unmarried UAE women.
The Women's Federation is also campaigning against the practice of older male citizens taking young wives, usually second ones, from abroad. These women are often relatively uneducated and, it is felt, have little to contribute to UAE society other than a disruptive influence.
Yet another by-product of the oil boom has been the increasing dependence on foreign housemaids and nannies for rearing the children of both UAE citizens and expatriates. This has been shown to have a damaging effect upon the cohesiveness of society and is being resisted. The Women's Federation has launched a public campaign to warn parents of the dangers of allowing children to be brought up exclusively or largely by women from a different culture
Women and the UAE Constitution
From the time that the UAE was founded, the government has been most attentive to ensuring that both men and women be provided with every opportunity for education, advancement and success in whatever sphere. This philosophy is enshrined in the Constitution that specifically addresses issues of relevance to the safeguarding of women's interests.
The Constitution lays down, for example, that social justice should apply to all and that before the law, women are equal to men. They enjoy the same legal status, claim to titles, access to education and the right to practice their chosen professions. They are also guaranteed the same access to employment, health and family welfare facilities. In accordance with Islamic principles upon which the Constitution is based, the rights of women to inherit property are also guaranteed and insured.
The Constitution of the United Arab Emirates states:
"The family is the basis of society which shall be responsible for protecting childhood and motherhood. Laws shall be formulated in all fields to observe this protection and care in a way which safeguards the dignity of women, preserves their identity and secures for them the conditions appropriate for a prosperous life and suitable work which is in accordance with their nature and capabilities as mothers and wives and as workers."
On the international level, the UAE government is actively studying all international agreements related to the elimination of discrimination against women with a view to making sure that any clauses therein are not in contradiction with the UAE's legal code and laws.
The guarantees for women in the UAE Constitution have been written into other legislation passed subsequent to the establishment of the state. For example, under the Labor Law (the law that governs employment) discrimination in terms of salary between men and women is strictly forbidden.
Women are at present entitled to 45 days paid maternity leave in addition to any other leave entitlements. This policy is at present under review with the possibility of increasing the maternity leave to 90 days and also instituting an optional leave for up to two years on reduced salary to enable mothers to nurse infant children.
Should her husband die, a women is granted special paid leave for a period of four months and ten days in accordance with Islamic Sharia law. Again this would be in addition to any other leave entitlements.
The Constitution also states that civil servants may be granted at least two months' leave by the appropriate Minister if they are obliged to accompany a parent or child abroad for medical treatment.
These guarantees are certainly comparable to those in other parts of the world. Also active in the UAE is the officially-supported UAE Women's Federation which campaigns for possible changes and amendments to existing laws. An improvement which is currently being sought is changes in the Civil Service Law which would promote further employment of women in Government
Traditional music in the Emirates
The music precedes the players, as the throb of drumbeats beckons through the twilight. A steadily increasing stream of people, attracted by the sound and the beat, move towards the gaily coloured lights, which mark the site of the celebration. The melody grows louder, the beat more insistent. Now it is not just the sound of one drum, but of several. The steady thumping of a bass drum is now overlaid with the higher pitched tattoo of smaller drums.
As they come into view, the singers are accompanied by the wailing, treble melody of the flute. The dancers and singers are white-robed men, moving together slowly and rhythmically. Their voices rise and fall in a chorus as repetitive as the waves breaking on the sandy beaches of the Gulf shore. These entertainers may continue for half an hour or more without interruption, slowly dancing around in a circle, surrounded by a crowd of spectators. The musicians maintain their relentless rhythm, lending a totally hypnotic effect to the whole event.
But this is not only a nighttime spectacle, nor is being part of the audience merely a chance encounter. Groups of these folk singers, dancers and musicians performing traditional music are increasingly common in the United Arab Emirates, and can be found at almost any celebration.
A sheikh's wedding, for example, with its accompanying celebrations on a grand public scale, will bring together several troupes of musicians and dancers from all around the Emirates. Each troupe will perform on a wide variety of instruments, and will present an equally wide variety of dances.
Music and dance are inextricably linked in the traditional Arab world, and each musical instrument plays for a specific style of dance. Among the most popular today are the Ayyalah, a stylized performance of a battle scene; the Liwa, which was brought to the Gulf by East African traders; and the Noban, which, as its name indicates, had its origin in Nubia, a southern region of Upper Egypt.
The Ayyalah is accompanied solely by drums. The leader of the ensemble is the big drum, known as Al-Ras. Its solid, deep voice sets the beat for the three smaller Takhamir drums. Tambourines are sometimes used, too; these are known as Duffuf or Tiran. The ensemble is sometimes completed by the use of copper cymbals.
Sticks of palm wood are used by Ayyalah drummers, while other types of drum are played with the hands, or with sticks and hands together. Drums can be prepared before the performance by kindling small fires which heat the drumheads and tambourines, tightening the leather to give a more melodious sound. Manual tuning is used for the big drums, by means of the ropes which hold the drumhead in place.
Although Ayyalah dancing is found throughout the Gulf, there are small variations according to region. In the UAE, the dance is performed by at least 25 men, and sometimes by as many as 200. They stand in two rows, facing each other, arms linked. As they wave camel sticks in front of them, they sway back and forth to the beat and each row sings, in a declaration of challenges and boasts to the opposite side.
The Liwa is danced to African-style music and features a pipe-flute called the Mizmar (known in Kuwait as the Sirnai). The three backing drums for this dance are the Shindo, the Jabwah, and the Jasser. More recently, a fourth drum -- known as the Peeper -- was added. This drummer plays a dominant role, which gives him plenty of opportunity for a virtuoso performance.
The Mizmar has an oboe-like sound and produces a haunting melody, which is lent particular poignancy by the eastern tonic scale to which it is tuned. Like the oboe, it is made in two pieces, with a double reed fitted into the second piece. The best instruments these days are made of African hardwood in Mombassa and Dar Es Salaam. Their cost can be as high as ,000.
The Liwa begins with a Mizmar solo of about six minutes in slow tempo. The drums join in, followed by the ten dancers/singers, and gradually the pace increases to reach a spectacular swirl of activity. The whole dance takes about 25 minutes and both men and women can be involved in a performance.
The singing is always performed in Swahili -- the native language of Tanzania and Zanzibar. These were both major trading partners with the Gulf in centuries past, and have lent their language and culture to influence this fascinating dance.
Festive occasions often see the use of two other traditional instruments. The Tamboura (called the Simsimia in Saudi Arabia) and the Manior (the Kashkoosh in Kuwait), are both used to accompany the Noban.
The Tamboura is perhaps a relative of early harps found in other Mediterranean and Middle Eastern cultures. It is a fairly sophisticated stringed instrument, with five horsegut strings held in tension between its wooden base, covered with camel-skin, and its wooden, bow-shaped neck. The strings are plucked with sheep's horns, which have been specially cleaned and treated for the purpose. The sound of the Tamboura is rough and strangely resonant, something akin to a bass violin.
In contrast, the Manior is far less sophisticated. It is a true example of ingenuity and of 'making-do' with whatever materials come to hand. This is a percussion instrument which, quite literally, needs to be worn in order to be played! It is made of thick cotton covered with hundreds of loosely stitched, dried goats' hoofs. The player wraps the instrument around him like a skirt, and by twisting as he dances, he can produce a clapping sound to the beat of the Tamboura and the ubiquitous drums.
An instrument similar to the Scottish and Northumbrian bagpipes is often heard at wedding ceremonies in the Gulf today. This is the Alhaban (known as the Girbah in both Kuwait and Saudi Arabia), and features a tanned goatskin on which three pipes are fixed in a somewhat ungainly fashion. One pipe blows air into the goatskin, one plays a drone note, and the third has the melody.
The Arabian bagpipes are also interesting in that the air sack, or bladder, still retains an undeniable goat shape. This, of course, makes it a somewhat awkward armful for the player, and also lends it an air of drollery, which contributes greatly to the spirit of the performance, adding much to the general gaiety and goodwill for which these types of entertainment are famous.
The music of the Gulf is music for the people by the people -- a celebration of the joy of living. Long may it continue
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